A.M. van Loosen-Loerakker, The Cappella Maggiore...  (1, 2)

(←) The Baptist cycle starts with the scene ‘Zacharias sacrificing in the Temple’. Ghirlandaio follows here in his illustration of the scene the Gospel of Luke I, 5:17, read on the Vigil of the feast of the birth of the Baptist. The announcement of the angel to the priest Zacharias, who is offering incense, that he is becoming a son, is taking place in a complicated architectural temple building. At the same time we see the façade and the interior of the temple. The façade is erected like a triumphal Arch, adorned with 4 antique reliefs.

On the cornice of the interior of the temple we find the inscription: ‘Oratio Mea Sicut Incensum in Conspecto Tuo’. This prayer here of Zacharias is being fulfilled by the words of the angel that he will become a son. The angel is pointing upwards to heaven, his finger is just besides the thurible and underneath the censer the scallop is depicted, reminding us of the sacrament of the Baptism and eternal life (Ross 1983, 94, note 38)

On the façade of the temple we observe between the two reliefs on the cornice on the left and the two reliefs on the right side the inscription: Dominus ab utero vocavit me de  vetri’, words spoken by the prophet Jesaja 49:1. This text is a passage read in the epistle on the feast day of the birth of the Baptist on 24th June. In this epistle John the Baptist is announced as precursor of Christ and also his mission is indicated, which can be seen as a ‘militia spiritualis’. The four reliefs on the triumphal Arch are illustrating the words of the prophet and the military mission of the Baptist as well. These reliefs have been carefully selected by the artist. The upper two  reliefs are derived from the Arch of Constantine. The upper left one is depicting ‘The Adventus of Trajanus’ and the upper right one is a composition from the attica of the east side of the Arch of Constantine and the relief of the attica of  the west side of the same Arch depicting a triumphal entry of the emperor.

The other two reliefs beneath are being derived from: on the left side a bronze medal. On the recto of this medal we see Julia Domna represented as ‘Concordia’. On the verso is depicted a round temple with the Vestal virgins( Bernart Tafelband 1926, 34, Tafel 92, ab.5) However Ghirlandaio changed the vestal virgins into soldiers to come to an over all martial theme. The right relief beneath is derived from a coin representing Galba as ‘repairer’ of the republican Freedom. Why Ghirlandaio forced himself into difficulties by choosing for coins for the reliefs beneath the arch in stead of borrowing them of the Arch of Constantine? Well, it is known that Roman coins or medals often contained a political message. In that last sense the depicted reliefs served also in connection with the portraits given in this fresco. We shall see this connection later on in the discussion about the portraits that are inserted in the frescoes. .But first of all we can see them in connection with the bible scene where the advent of the Baptist is announced. This means that we have to see the reliefs as an illustration of the Baptists mission.

In the scene of ‘The Visitation’ Mary encounters her niece Elisabeth. In the Mass of the feast day of ‘the Visitation on 2^nd July the Gospel of Luke I, 39-47 is read, among others, ‘Et factum est, ut audivit salutationem  Mariae Elisabeth exsultavit infans in utero  ejus: et repleta est Spiritu sancto….’ In this line we can recognize ‘the sanctificatio’ of the Baptist. In answering the greeting of Elisabeth, Mary says: ‘Magnificat anima mea Dominum: et exsultavit spiritus meus in Deo salutary meo’. The ‘Magnificat’ is the final hymn sung in the Vespers.

The inspiration for the scene of ‘The Visitation’ for Ghirlandaio is the text of the Song of Songs 2, 8:14 read in the Mass in the Epistle of the feast day of the Visitation 2^nd July. (Ross 1983, 119, also Simons I 1985, 310) The artist is illustrating in this fresco several lines of the above mentioned text in the pictorial language. At the same time it enables him to create a multifunctional décor and is so able to fulfil the terms of the contract in which is indicated: to paint as much as possible figures, buildings, castles, rocks, hills, cities, valleys, water and clothing, as is also recommended by Alberti in his treatise ‘Della Pittura’.

For instance: in the middle on the foreground of the fresco the meeting of Mary and Elisabeth is depicted referring to line 14 of the Song of Songs: ‘columba mea in foraminibus petrae, in caverna maceriae’. Both women are placed behind the city wall on the left side and the rock on the right side, so they are forming a cleft (caverna maceriae). Between the two women we can see a path with stones. Higher up in the fresco we see three men looking over a wall gazing in the depth to look for somebody the beholder cannot see. But the gestures of the little watchmen, in the portico of the triumphal arch, indicates that they can see someone coming. That this coming can do no harm is made clear for us by one of the watchman who is reassuring his colleague by grasping his arm because he was about to use his weapon.

In the background we notice three towers. The one to the right side could be the bell tower of the Santa Maria Novella church; in the middle the tower of the Palazzo Vecchio is indicated, approximately above the head of Saint Elisabeth, in this connection probably a reminder of the coming Baptist, who is going to be the future patron Saint of Florence. On the right side the tower is reminiscent of the tower of David and is placed above the head of the Virgin and could be an indication for the praise of Mary in the metaphor of Cant.4:4: Turris Davidica.

In the meeting of the Virgin and Elisabeth lies the promise for the future salvation of mankind. That this promise will be fulfilled, points to the three women in the corner on the left side of the fresco. They are Mary Magdalena, Mary Kleophas and Mary Salome; all three women are also depicted on the back side of the altar retable wich presents ‘The Resurrection of Christ’. This interpretation of the bible scene is especially meaningful for the three women on the right side in the corner of the fresco. Here Ghirlandaio is painting the portraits of women of the Tornabuoni family. In discussing the portraits we shall come upon these women.

The illustration of ‘The Birth of the Baptist’ is inspired by the Gospel of Luke I, 57:68, read in the Mass on the 24^th of June the birthday of the Baptist, but the trend of thought of the Quattrocento is being reflected in this scene as well.

In comparison with ‘the Birth of Mary’ where the birth takes place in a palace room, the birth of the Baptist is taking place in a simple room. Elisabeth is sitting in her bed holding a book in her left hand, which is comparable with the book Mary is holding in the scene of ‘Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple’ and must be the Book of the Old Testament.

Elisabeth’s gaze is fixed on the women who entered the room. Her face shows clearly the features of an elderly woman. Her bed is covered with a red blanket that is forming, so to say, the décor for the scene of the two midwives. One is holding the Baptist while nursing him, the other reaches both arms to the new-born child also willing to hold him. The basin meant for his bath in the form of a big dish, is a bit hidden behind her left leg. Both midwifes are looking sadly, which is to be seen at the corner of the mouth that is pulled down. This setting points to the philosophy of the Quattrocento that also the Baptist had a foreknowledge of his coming martyrdom. (Lavin  1955, 85-101) In the colour red of the blanket which is covering Elisabeth’s bed we see in the Christian mystic a symbol of the love of God and of the martyrs who are the soldiers of Christ. (Réau 1955, 72) That we have to see this philosophy of the martyrdom of the Baptist is underlined by Ghirlandaio in the depiction of the girl on the right side with her windblown clothes, characterizing her as a nymph. She carries a dish with fruit that is not only decorative as a still life but has here a special meaning. The fruit she carries are peaches, pomegranates and bunches of grapes that have here a symbolic meaning. The bursted pomegranate is with his red juice a symbol for the blood of the martyrs. The bunches of grapes are a symbol for the Eucharistic sacrament. The peaches are an emblem for the immortality.

Just standing before the nymph we see a portrait of Lucrezia Tornabuoni, the sister of the commissioner. Her assistance here reminds us of her important poem: ‘La Vita e Morte del Glorioso Giovanni Battista’. (Marino 1997, 70, 71; Lavin 1955, 85-101)

In contrast with the nymph Ghirlandaio depicted a servant in the background at the bedside of Elisabeth, who brings two carafes: one is containing water and the other wine. She places these objects on a table with a white cloth. At the other side of the bed on the foreground the midwife is sitting with the infant the Baptist. The two carafes are located just above the head of the Baptist and could be seen as follows: the carafe with wine as pointing to the Eucharistic sacrament, the carafe with water to the future sacrament of Baptism.

Above the bed of Elisabeth we see a jar with two sound pomegranates, here as a symbol of fertility, remembering the text in the ‘Legenda Aurea’ that says that Mary came to congratulate her niece Elisabeth whose infertility was taken away from her.

Furthermore we find an important text in the Mass on the birthday of the Baptist in the Offertory Ps. 92, 13: ‘Justus ut palma florebit: sicut cedrus, quae in Libano est, multiplicabitur’. We find this text illustrated in several scenes to come, in the pictorial language used by Ghirlandaio.

The scene with ‘The Naming of the Baptist’ is not mentioned in the contract of 1485. It could be possible that this scene is inserted at the occasion of the birth of Giovannino, the grandchild of Giovanni Tornabuoni. (Simons 1987, 235.)

In the fresco the attention of the beholder is attracted by the words we find on the two arches in the middle of the basilica on the cornice :’Johannis est Nomen Eius’. The accent lays on the might of the name Johannis. The Legenda Aurea tells us: ‘that the name is given back the word to the mute person, the devotion to a father; to the people a priest; the father is a prophet’. (Voragine 1993, 414) The prophecy of Zacharias is to be found in Luke I: 76: ‘Tu puer, Propheta Altissimi vocaberis: praeibis ante Dominum para vias ejus’. We find this prediction also in the Antiphon 5 of the second Vespers on the birthday of the Baptist. The illustration of these words spoken by Zacharias is given by Ghirlandaio in the fresco on the right back wall of the apse with the scene ‘The Baptist in the Wilderness’. This scene is depicted on the same height as ‘The Naming of the Baptist’, making a corner of 90 degrees. We see the Baptist climbing the stony path of the wilderness, while looking back at his father who is speaking the above mentioned prophecy. In this manner the two scenes are connected with each other. In this scene we remark twice the pictorial depiction of Psalm 92.13 at the right side of the Baptist and high up on the left side in the corner of the fresco.

After having spoken his prophecy Zacharias begins to sing the hymn ‘Benedictus’. The hymn ‘Benedictus is sung during the ‘Lauden’, the morning office of the canons.

When we compare the sketch that Ghirlandaio made for this scene with the fresco, then we can establish above all the change in the composition. Instead of the compact group on the sketch, he decides for a diagonal formation of the principal persons. By choosing the diagonal line he created the space for the three figures, nymphs on the right side. Behind Zacharias stands a nymph who makes a gesture of praying and can be seen as a personification of ‘Spes’. But at the same time this figure can also be seen as a daughter of Zeus and in this capacity she could inspire the human being with prophetical gifts. Seen in this ability she also serves as a reference to the prophetic announcement of Zacharias. Just behind the infant John the Baptist who is clothed in swaddles and is being held by a richly dressed lady, who is looking very seriously, we notice two women, by their clothing also to be seen as nymphs. They are placed close together; one of them is grasping the arm of her companion to restrain her from something. Looking at this figure we remark that she is dancing and holds her left hand in the same way as Salome in the ‘Feast of Herod’ in the lunette of the right side wall. Represented in this way she is here already a threat for the Baptist. In this manner the artist continues the philosophy of the Quattrocento that also the Baptist had a foreknowledge of his martyrdom as was already indicated by Ghirlandaio in the scene ‘The Birth of the Baptist’.

The diagonal setting of the principal persons is also the feature in the scene ‘John the Baptist Preaching’. In the middle of the fresco we find the Baptist preaching, standing on a boulder in which a putto is sitting, who is just coming out with the left leg.

Ingeniously Ghirlandaio is illustrating here literally the text of the Gospel of Luke 3: 7-8: ‘He said therefore, to the multitudes that came forth to be baptized by him: Ye offspring of vipers, who hath showed you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth, therefore, fruit worthy of penance; and do not begin to say: we have Abraham for our father. For I say to you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children to Abraham’. The putto, derived from an antique statue is underlining the words of the Baptist. At the same time the left leg of the putto that is coming out of the boulder remembers us at a birth or rebirth gained by baptism.

At the end of the diagonal line Christ is standing before a huge rock, illustrating the text of the Gospel of Mathew 3, 11: ‘…..one mightier than I, is coming…..’. The figure of Christ standing before the rock can be associated with the image of Christ as a ‘spiritual rock’, a glorification that we find in the words of Saint Paul in Kor. 10:4.

In this scene the path is cleared, the stones are laying aside here, compared with the scene of ‘John in the Wilderness’ where the stones are still on his path, Luke 3, 4:6.

A remarkable detail in the fresco is the representation of a rock overgrown with moss on which a cedar is growing with dark and light leaves, depicted at the feet of Christ standing before the huge rock. In this image we can see the whole illustration of Psalm 92, 13-16: ‘the just shall flourish like the palm tree; he shall grow up like the cedar of Libanus. They that are planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of the house of our God. They shall still increase in fruitful old age; and shall be well treated, that they may show that the Lord our God is righteous, He my rock and there is no iniquity in Him’. The text of this Psalm is already pointed out in the scene of ‘The Birth of the Baptist’ where the Psalm is read in the Offertory of the Mass on 24^th June. We shall see that this Psalm text runs like a red thread through the scenes of the Baptist cycle.

In the scene ‘The Baptism of Christ’ we see in the middle of the fresco Christ praying, while being baptized by John the Baptist with a scallop. High up in heaven encircled by angels we see God the Father with the Dove of the Holy Ghost acknowledging Christ as the Beloved Son. (see also Luke 3, 21-22) Ghirlandaio is clearly representing here ‘The Holy Trinity’. The colour of the clothing held by one kneeling angel on the left side in the foreground can be explicated symbolically. The colour red stands for the Passion. The other angel a little hidden behind the other is clothed in a blue colour that is a symbol of heaven.

Just behind the two angels in the left corner a man is waiting to be baptized. The inspiration for the depiction of this man receiving baptism is derived from an antique statue the ‘Apoxyomenos’ of Lysippos. A Roman copy of this statue from the year 330 can be found in the Vatican in Rome. The choice of Ghirlandaio for the ‘Apoxyomenos’ can not be accidentally, because here an athlete is depicted that purifies his skin with a scraper – a procedure of the purification of the body – compared with ‘the spiritual purification’  that the soul of the man to be baptised is undergoing by baptism.

The kneeling figure on the foreground right who is loosening the strap of his sandal while looking up at Christ reminds us at the text of Luke 3:16, were it is said ‘I am not worthy to undo the strap of His sandal’.

The cycle of the Baptist ends with the scene ‘The Feast of Herod’.

In the illustration of this scene Ghirlandaio follows the Gospel of Marcus 6, 21:27 read in the Mass on 29^th August, the remembrance day of the martyrdom of the Baptist.

The architectural setting reminds us of a classical Roman building, more in particular the Basilica of Constantine, which was thought to be in the Quattrocento the ‘Templum Pacis’.

There are two stories illustrated here: the dance of Salome and the offering of the head of the Baptist on a big dish. We saw already a hint of this dish in ‘The Birth of the Baptist’ a little hidden behind the midwife.

Salome is clothed all’antica, through her windblown dress the accent is falling on her dance. The outstretched left hand reminds us of the wicked nymph in ‘the Naming of the Baptist’. The story of the Baptist comes to an end by the vow of Herod to his daughter that every wish of her will be fulfilled after her dancing. The immoral wife of Herod, Herodias said that Salome should ask for the head of the Baptist. So we see on the left side a kneeling servant with the head of the Baptist lying on a disk, that he is presenting to Herod who in accordance with the text from the Gospel looked at it in sadness.

In the Gradual in the Mass on the 29^th August the Remembrance Day for the Baptist, Psalm 92, 13:14 is sung. Also in the Vespers on that day the canons in the Cappella Maggiore are singing the Antiphon on the Magnificat according to Psalm 92, 13: ‘Justus  germinabit sicut lilium: et florebit in aeternum ante Dominum’. This Psalm is significant for the scenes in the Baptist cycle, as well as read in the Mass or represented by Ghirlandaio in the pictural language.

In the reproduction of the basilica Ghirlandaio creates a grandiose spatial perspective. In the middle section the wall is opened and we are looking out in a landscape of mountains and trees. The trees have a symbolic meaning as they refer to immortality. And so does the peacock sitting on the super abacus of the capital.

The brightly lighted landscape is in sharp contrast with the dark vault of the basilica that in this fresco can be interpreted as a symbol for the blindness of Herod that is leading to darkness. (see Isidorus of Sevilla 570-636) But also by the contrast between –the light and the darkness – the beholder’s attention is attracted to the text of John 8:12, when Jesus speaks the following words: ‘I am the light of the world: he that follows Me, walketh not in the darkness, but shall have the light of life’.

The back wall of the Apse

On the back wall of the apse we see on the left side the fresco with the scene ‘The Annunciation’. This scene is situated on the same height as the scene with ‘The Betrothal of the Virgin’ on the left side wall. The scene ‘The Annunciation’ is situated in a contemporary palace room. On the foreground we see Mary gesturing with her right hand and in her left hand she is holding a book. According to the Fathers of the Church she is meditating about the prophecy of Jesaja 7:14: ‘Ecce Virgo concipiet….’. The kneeling angel greets Mary with the words: ‘Ave Maria gratia plena’. The lily he is holding in his left hand has three flowers as a symbol for the threefold virginity: Virgo ante partum, in partu, post partum. (Réau 1957, 183)

In the left corner of the fresco we can observe the Dove of the Holy Ghost, flying above the triforum window, that is showing a landscape in the springtime.

Ghirlandaio is painting this scene in accordance with the text from the Gospel of Luke I, 26:38. The state of mind in which Ghirlandaio represents the Virgin can be interpreted by the notion ‘cogitatio’ and should be explained as being the humility of the Virgin. This scene is the prelude in the story of Salvation. Beda describes the scene with the following words: ‘exordium nostrae redemptionis’. (Réau 1957, 174)

The stained glass-windows in the centre of the apse shows three scenes, at the bottom the ‘Madonna della Neve’: it commemorates the foundation of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome by pope Liberius in the 4^th century, a gift of Giovanni Patrizio. However in the glass-window of Santa Maria Novella there are some depictions for example the cupola of the Duomo in Florence on the right side, that reminds us of Florence.

One of the reasons why the event was chosen to adorn the chapel may have been to draw the attention to the fact that Giovanni Tornabuoni was here the supporter. (Ross 1983, 156).

In the middle the scene of ‘The Presentation in the Temple’ is depicted, an important New Testament scene, already discussed in accordance with the scene ‘The Expulsion of Joachim in the Temple’.

The upper glass-windows represent the ‘Madonna della Cintola’. Here the legend of the Cintola is important. The Cintola is to be seen as the bond between heaven and earth and the Virgin as the intercessor for the believer. On the feast day of the commemoration of the ‘Assumption of the Virgin’ the Epistle in the Mass is read from Ecclesiasticus: 24, 13-15: ‘Quasi cedrus exaltata sum in Cades, et quasi plantatio rosae in Jericho…’ This text can be seen given in the pictorial language in a mixture of flowers and trees in the open sarcophagus, placed obliquely in the picture plane.

On the 15^th August we also celebrate ‘The Incoronation of the Virgin’. In the Cappella Maggiore we see this scene in the fresco technique in the lunette of the back wall of the apse. When we compare this scene with ‘the Coronation of the Virgin’ in the rose window above the main entry of the Santa Maria Novella we establish two similarities with Ghirlandaio’s fresco.

In the rose window we see the Virgin in the same position with crossed arms, seated beside Christ placing solemnly with both hands the crown on Mary’s head. Christ and Mary are here also encircled by music playing angels. In this way we see in the longitudinal axis of the church, which is dedicated to the ‘Assunta’, in the middle-aisle on the highest positions, in the northern part (the apse) as well as in the southern part of the church images of ‘The Coronation of the Virgin’.

In the fresco ‘The Coronation of the Virgin’ we can perceive Mary as ‘Sponsa Ecclesia’. (Kecks 2000, 303) Notable is Ghirlandaio’s representation of Christ with a sceptre, an image that can be associated with Vergilius’ description of the Heaven as the city of the emperor who reigns in heaven.

The altar reredos

On the front of the altarpiece we see ‘The Madonna in Glory’. In the composition built up as a triangle the Madonna is encircled by two aureoles as a heavenly vision, nursing the Christ child. The first aureole encloses the Madonna with the Child and is being surrounded by seraphim’s in the second aureole. In this representation of the Madonna nursing the Child, Ghirlandaio translated the text of the Antiphon in the Magnificat: ‘ex te enim ortus est Sol Justitiae, Christus Deus Noster’ in the pictorial language. We saw already the first line of this Antiphon in the scene ‘The Birth of Mary’ written on the cornice of the wainscot.

In the left corner immediately depicted under Mary we notice the archangel Michael with his sword in the right hand and in his left hand the imperial globe. The sword indicates his position as the angel of ‘The Last Judgement’ and it reminds us also of his victory in besieging the dragon. ( Apc. 12:7). The imperial globe is a symbol for his power as a monarch. On the feast day of Saint Michael on the 29^th September we notice in the second Vespers of that day the Antiphon on the Magnificat: ‘ Princeps gloriosissime, Michael Archangele, est memor nostril: hic, et ubique simper precare pro nobis Filium Dei’. And in the first Vespers we find in the Antiphon 3 the text: ‘Archangele Michael constitui te principem super omnes animas suscipiendas’. Clearly the archangel is indicated as intercessor for the believer in ‘The Last Judgement’. Also in the Mass of 2^nd November for the deceased the Archangel is being asked in the Offertory to bring the deceased from the darkness to the eternal light.

Kneeling in the left corner we notice Saint Dominicus holding an open book in which is written: ‘Disciplinam et Sapientiam Docuit Eos Beatus Dominicus’ at the same time he is looking out of the picture to the beholder.

On the right side in the corner we distinguish Saint John the Evangelist kneeling. He is looking up in ecstasy to the Madonna and the Child, remembering us of his vision as is written in Apc. 12:1. Standing beside him we find the Baptist who is pointing to the Christ child, as the Sun of Justice and to the Madonna as Mother of the Redeemer and for that reason can be seen as intercessor for the believer at the moment of ‘The Last Judgement’.

In this painting the Madonna nursing her child, the Madonna Lactans, points to the virtue of charitas. Known for this virtue are also the Saints: St.Laurentius and St. Stephanus who were portrayed on the side wings of the altar front.

The back side of the altarpiece shows ‘The Resurrection of Christ’.

High in the middle of a triangular composition Christ is rising in glory to heaven by pointing upwards with the right hand, while holding in the left hand the banner of Victory. In the corner of the painting the guards are flying, afraid of the miracle they are witnessing.

On the left side the three Maria’s are approaching, ready for the anointment of Christ. But Christ is already rising up to heaven. In this painting the closing sentence of the Antiphon on the Magnificat,sung in the second Vespers of 8^th September, is illustrated: ‘qui solvens maledictionem, dedit benedictionem, et confundens mortem, donavit nobis vitam sempiternam’.

On  the open sarcophagus we see a garland of acorns, pine cones and ears of corn, symbols for the Offering, the Resurrection and the Redemption. Above the garland the pelican is depicted, which is feeding with his blood his young ones, a symbol for the offer of Christ and the Eucharistic sacrament. In the Sacramental hymn of Thomas of Aquino ‘Adore Te’ we find in strophe 6 the words: ‘Pie Pellicane, Jesu Domine, me immundum munda tuo sanguine: cujus una stilla salvum facere totum mundum quit ab omni scelere. Dante also refers to Christ as ‘Nostro Pellicano’ in his ‘Divina Commedia’ in Par. XXV, 113 (Réau 1955 I, 94)

On the side wings of the altar were depicted the Saints: St. Antonino and St. Catharina, both as examples for the Dominican Order.

The portraits in the Virgin cycle

In The fresco ‘The Expulsion of Joachim’ we can locate 8 portraits.

In the left corner we see from right to left: Lorenzo Tornabuoni, the son of the commissioner, married to Giovanna degli Albizi, Piero de Medici, Cosimo di Leonardo Bartoli Salimbeni, and Alessandro Lutozzo Nasi, the husband of Ludovica Tornabuoni, daughter of the commissioner.

In the right corner from right to left: with his back to the beholder David Ghirlandaio, brother of Domenico Ghirlandaio, in the middle Alessio Baldovinetti, Ghirlandaio’s teacher in the art of painting and mosaici, Domenico Ghirlandaio, self assured looking out into the chapel, Bastiano Mainardi, a pupil and at the same time his brother-in-law. We could see the portrayed persons as witnesses of the bible scene.

In the fresco ‘The Birth of the Virgin’:

Just behind the staircase we see a group of 5 women portrayed. The girl in front of this group has been identified as Ludovica Tornabuoni, the daughter of the commissioner. We know that she was married to Alessandro Nasi on 25^th February 1489 (Notarile antecosimiano, 13186, c.316v) and died in childbirth aged 15 years (Orlandi 2004, 31). In all probability Domenico painted here a posthumous portrait of her. She is dressed in a brocade robe, embroidered with trisected diamonds, eagles, and suns. In connection with her passing away the motifs on her dress can be explained as being symbols. The trisected diamond, the personal devise of Tornabuoni, identifies her as the daughter of Giovanni Tornabuoni. The rising eagles symbolically point to Psalm 103:5: ‘Your youth shall be renewed like that of the eagle’. The fact that we are thinking of a posthumous portrait seems to be underlined by the depiction of an ‘Oceanus mask’ on the pillar just behind the girl’s head. We came across such a mask in the ‘Codex Escurialensis’. Oceanus, Tritons and Nereids appear frequently on sarcophagi. In Antiquity it was believed that these creatures would bring the souls of the deceased to the isles of beatitude. So the hope of an everlasting life for Ludovica in this bible scene by the intercession of the Virgin is being emphasized by the expectation that people in the Antiquity had of life hereafter by means of the river gods.

In the scene ‘The Dormitio and the Assumption of the Virgin’ it is said that in the middle on the right of an apostle the Dominican Giovanni Caroli is portrayed (Simons 1987, 231). In the left corner of the fresco in the middle we find a portrait of Joseph II, patriarch of Constantinople (Marino 1992, Tav. XIV, Marino 1993, 48)

The portraits in the Baptist cycle

In the opening fresco ‘Zacharias sacrificing in the Temple’ we locate Giovanni Tornabuoni standing on the left side of the angel, accompanied by three persons of his family, from whom the left person, his eldest brother is praying. On the right side before the temple building five members of the family are depicted. In the corner right the employees of the Medici bank in Rome, of which Giovanni Tornabuoni was the leader, are portrayed. In the left corner we see  in a circle the Neoplatonici: Ficino, Landino, Poliziano and the bishop Gentile de’ Becchi.

We can interpret the attendance of all persons in connection with this bible scene according to the Gospel of Luke 1:11:……’the whole multitude of the people were praying outside at the hour of incense’. (Ross 1983, 105)

Above the heads of the four portraits on the left, we remark a round temple with in it a statue that is making the same gesture as the angel, pointing upwards as a sign that the prayer is granted. The temple is surrounded by soldiers. As already mentioned this relief is derived from a medal and is adapted by Ghirlandaio and so fits in the overall martial theme of the task to be fulfilled by the Baptist. But in this relief we can see another meaning as well. We find the figure represented in the temple, several times in the same pose in the ‘ Codex Escurialensis’ depicted in a floor mosaic. In the decoration of this floor mosaic we see in the corners a cornupia. This reminds us at one of the tasks of the god Hercules. So it is very likely that the statue is meant to be the god Hercules. On the Porta della Mandorla of the Duomo we perceive a sculpture of Hercules encircled with leaves and in the corners cornupia.

In relation with the god Hercules it is important to mention that Hercules in ancient times was the protector of Florence and a symbol of ‘Fortitude’. At the end of the 13^th century we see his effigy on the seal of the Signoria with the inscription: ‘Hercules clava domat Fiorentia prava’. (Chastel 1975, 175) Salutati wrote in 1391 ‘De Laboris Hercules’ a long discussion over the importance of this mythological figure. Landino gives in ‘Questiones Camaldulenses’ a moralistic and Neoplatonic interpretation of the figure of Hercules. Also in ‘Vera Nobilitate’  Landino is giving a moralistic analysis of the Hercules figure.

The connection of this relief with the portrait of Giovanni Tornabuoni can be explained as follows. It is known that the god Hercules exercised a wholesome influence in matters of trade, as the god who sanctioned your oath and who accepted the tithe of your gain which you had vowed at the outset of an enterprise. With this last meaning in mind we can imagine that Giovanni Tornabuoni, who was very successful in his matters of trade, is willing to give his contribution in the form of the decorations of the Cappella Maggiore in the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella.

When we consider the recto of the medal from which the relief is derived we are confronted with the depiction of Julia Domna as ‘Concordia’. This political message of ancient times is also appropriate to Giovanni Tornabuoni and his ‘consorteria’. They are to be seen here as an example of concord.

On the relief on the triumphal arch on the right side, under, we observe a relief with an ‘Adlocutio’, that originated from a roman coin, minted during the reign of emperor Vespasianus, in honour of Galba as freedom fighter and peacemaker. This relief can be seen in connection with the mission of peace made by Giovanni Tornabuoni under the leadership of Francesco Soderini, the archbishop of Volterra, in the year 1480 to establish the peace between Florence and the Pope Sixtus IV. So the recto of the medal and coin functioned as hidden political messages, just as in Antiquity.

In the bible scene ‘The Visitation’ we distinguish in the right corner of the fresco three women. The first woman on the left has been recognised as Giovanna Tornabuoni, the wife of Lorenzo Tornabuoni. In 1488 she died in childbirth, her portrayal here is posthumous. A remarkable aspect here is her dress, that nearly resembles that of  Ludovica Tornabuoni painted in ‘The Birth of the Virgin’. On Giovanna’s dress we see also uprising eagles and suns, but instead of the trisected diamond we notice a twosected diamond. Also in this portrayal the uprising eagles have a symbolic meaning. Here Psalm 103:5 is relevant as well: ‘Your youth shall be renewed as that of the eagle’.

The name of the woman in the middle was up till now not known. But after examinations of the portraits (also with the ‘Villa Lemmi’ portraits) I think that we have here another picture of Ludovica Tornabuoni. Finally the woman in the corner of the fresco has been identified as Dianora Tornabuoni who died in the year 1461, in the age of 35 year. Consequently we are confronted with three posthumous portraits.

This observation is again underlined by antique reliefs, depicted on the triumphal arch that rises up above the heads of the three women. On the upper relief we see fighting Amazons of whom one is already lying on the ground, defeated. The lowest relief shows Tritons and Nereids, creatures depicted on antique sarcophagi that were thought to bring the souls of the deceased to the isles of beatitude. An image in view of  the hope for eternal life that is being expressed in Antiquity.

In the fresco of ‘The Visitation’ we see the three Maria’s represented, who we also encountered on the back side of the altarpiece that shows ‘The Resurrection of Christ’. According to the Christian faith the hope of an eternal life is rendered. Here the expectation of eternal life especially for the three women of the house of Tornabuoni is expressed. So Ghirlandaio created a parallel between the hope for life everlasting in  Antiquity and the hope for life hereafter in the Christian era. By this cumulative message of hope, the Christian and the pagan who both believe in a hereafter, the hope of life everlasting is reinforced.

Finally we find  the kneeling and praying Giovanni Tornabuoni and his deceased wife Francesca di Luca Pitti, also kneeling and in prayer, depicted on the back wall of the apse on respectively the left side and the right side, facing the back side of the altarpiece with ‘The Resurrection of Christ’. Here the couple’s hope for eternal life is being expressed in the presence of ‘The Risen Christ’.

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